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Hindu texts present diverse views on the position of women, ranging from feminine leadership as the highest goddess, to limiting gender roles. The Devi Sukta hymn of Rigveda, a scripture of Hinduism, declares the feminine energy as the essence of the universe, the one who creates all matter and consciousness, the eternal and infinite, the metaphysical and empirical reality (Brahman), the soul, (supreme self) of everything.[1][2] The woman is celebrated as the most powerful and the empowering force in some Hindu Upanishads, Sastras and Puranas, particularly the Devi Upanishad, Devi Mahatmya and Devi-Bhagavata Purana.[3][4][5]
Ancient and medieval era Hindu texts present a diverse picture of duties and rights of women in Hinduism. The texts recognize eight kinds of marriage, ranging from father finding a marriage partner for his daughter and seeking her consent (Brahma or Devic marriage), to the bride and groom finding each other without parental participation (Gandharva marriage) and paishachik (against god's blessing) marriage by force against woman, not following varnashram dharm and without parents blessing.[6][7] Scholars state that Vedic-era Hindu texts did not have the practice of Dowry or Sati.[8][9] These practices likely became widespread sometime in the 2nd millennium CE from socio-political developments in the Indian subcontinent.[10][11] Throughout history, Hindu society has seen many female rulers, such as Rudramadevi, religious figures and saints, such as Andal, philosophers, such as Maitreyi, and female practitioners/ conductors of Vedic Hindu rituals.[12][13]
Hinduism, states Bryant, has the strongest presence of the divine feminine among major world religions, from ancient times to the present.[14] The goddess is viewed as central in Shakti and Shiva Hindu traditions.[15][16] Matriarchal theology is quite prevalent in Sanskritic traditions and village Hinduism relating to the worship of Shakti, and there are numerous Hindu communities that are matriarchal.[13]
- ^ McDaniel 2004, p. 90.
- ^ Brown 1998, p. 26.
- ^ McDaniel 2004, pp. 90–92.
- ^ C. Mackenzie Brown (1990), The Triumph of the Goddess, State University of New York Press, ISBN , page 77
- ^ Thomas Coburn (2002), Devī Māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805576, pages 138, 303-309
- ^ Rajbali Pandey (1969), Hindu Sanskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, ISBN 978-8120803961, pages 158-170 and Chapter VIII
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ssshashiwas invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ Liljeström, Marianne; Paasonen, Susanna (8 March 2010). Working with Affect in Feminist Readings: Disturbing Differences. Routledge. p. 122. ISBN 978-1-134-01789-8.
- ^ a b Kramarae, Cheris; Spender, Dale (16 April 2004). Routledge International Encyclopedia of Women: Global Women's Issues and Knowledge. Routledge. p. 1059. ISBN 978-1-135-96315-6.
- ^ Bryant, Edwin (2007), Krishna: A Sourcebook, Oxford University Press, p. 441
- ^ David Kinsley (2005), Hindu goddesses: Vision of the Divine Feminine in the Hindu Religious Traditions, University of California Press, ISBN 978-8120803947, pages 6-17, 55-64
- ^ Flood, Gavin, ed. (2003), The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., ISBN 1-4051-3251-5, pages 200-203